Nkwekọrịta azụmaahịa n'okpuru iwu Dutch: ụdị na ahịrịokwu dị aṅaa dị mkpa?

A commercial contract under Dutch law is any agreement between businesses about the supply of goods, services, rights or capital. It comes into being through offer and acceptance under article 6:217 of the Dutch Civil Code (Burgerlijk Wetboek, BW), with no requirement of writing, signature, seal or consideration. Dutch law then limits that freedom in places that catch parties out: an agreement that was never signed can still bind you, a clause that reads perfectly can be set aside as unacceptable, and a choice of English law does not switch off Dutch mandatory rules.

When is a commercial contract valid?

Under article 6:217 BW, offer and acceptance are enough; consideration in the English-law sense is not required. In business this is more often a risk than a convenience, because a deal can close in an exchange of messages that neither side thought was final.

Ihe dị mkpa bụ ebumnuche ekwuputara. Isiokwu 3:33 na 3:35 nke Iwu Obodo jikọtara ha abụọ ọnụ: nkwekọrịta chọrọ ebumnuche kwekọrọ na nkwupụta, mana onye dabere n'ihe onye nke ọzọ yiri ka ọ na-ekwupụta nwere ike ijide nke ahụ na ya. Ya mere, ajụjụ a na-ajụkarị bụ "gịnị ka ị bu n'uche". Ọ bụ "gịnị ka akụkụ nke ọzọ nwere ike iwere gị dị ka ihe ezi uche dị na ya".

When can you annul a contract for defective consent?

Ọbụna nkwekọrịta e guzobere nke ọma nwere ike ịkagbu ebe nkwenye ahụ nwere nsogbu.

• Nzuzo (dwaling, edemede 6:228 nke Iwu Obodo). E tinyere nkwekọrịta ahụ n'ihe na-ezighi ezi banyere eziokwu ahụ, onye nke ọzọ kpatara foto ahụ, ma ọ bụ mara ya ma kwesị idozi ya, ma ọ bụ nwee otu nghọtahie ahụ. Njehie ahụ aghaghị ịbụ maka ugbu a, ọ bụghị atụmanya mwute maka ọdịnihu.
• Aghụghọ, mmanye na iji ọnọdụ eme ihe n'ụzọ na-ezighị ezi (isiokwu nke 3:44 nke Iwu Obodo). Aghụghọ bụ nkọwahie ma ọ bụ izochi ihe n'amaghị ama; nrụgide bụ nrụgide iwu na-akwadoghị; iji ọnọdụ eme ihe n'ụzọ na-ezighị ezi bụ iji ọnọdụ ịdabere, enweghị ahụmịhe ma ọ bụ nsogbu eme ihe.

Ihe ga-esi na ya pụta dị iche na ihe efu: nkwekọrịta ahụ agaghị aba uru, ya mere ọ ga-adịru ruo mgbe a ga-akagbu ya, ikike ịkagbu ya ga-adịkwa n'okpuru oge mmachi. Ebe e mere nkwekọrịta ahụ ruo ọtụtụ afọ, mkpesa mmejọ na-ada ada naanị n'ala ahụ kama ọ bụ n'ihi uru ya.

Who may sign for a company?

Ịbịanye aka site n'aka onye na-enweghị ikike bụ njehie nhazi kachasị na nke kachasị dị oke ọnụ na omume B2B. Nlele atọ na-ekpuchi ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ya niile.

• Ndekọ azụmaahịa. Ihe e dere na Chamber of Commerce gosiri ndị nduzi na ma ikike ha bụ nke naanị ha ma ọ bụ nke otu, nakwa ma ego ole ha nwere ike ịkwụ ụgwọ ya. Onye nduzi enyere ikike ịbanye aka naanị ya anaghị ejide ụlọ ọrụ ahụ.
• Ike nke onye ọkaiwu. Ọ bụrụ na onye bịanyere aka na ya abụghị onye nduzi, rịọ maka ikike ederede ma lelee oke ya na ụbọchị ya. Isiokwu 3:60 na usoro nke ụlọ ọrụ na-achịkwa Iwu Obodo nke ụdị a.
• O doro anya na ikike. Article 3:61 of the Civil Code can bind a company even where authority was lacking, if the counterparty reasonably relied on an appearance of authority created by the company itself.

Maka mkpebi ndị dị mkpa, iwu nke otu ndị ọrụ nwere ike ịchọ mkpebi nke ndị isi ma ọ bụ ndị nwere òkè. Jụọ maka ya kama iche na ọ dị mkpa.

Does a contract need a particular form or signature?

Ọtụtụ nkwekọrịta azụmaahịa enweghị ụdị. Ihe ndị a na-apụghị ime bụ: nnyefe ihe onwunwe edebanyere aha, nnyefe òkè na BV ma ọ bụ NV, na ọtụtụ ngwa ezinụlọ na nkewa chọrọ akwụkwọ notarial, nkwekọrịta nke na-agafe akwụkwọ achọrọ enweghịkwa isi kama ọ bụ naanị na a gaghị amanye ya ime ihe ọ bụla.

Iwu eIDAS na-achịkwa mbinye aka eletrọniki yana edemede 3:15a nke Iwu Obodo. Mbinye aka eletrọniki dị mfe abụghị ihe bara uru, mana mbinye aka eletrọniki ruru eru na-adakọ na nke e dere aka, ọdịiche ahụ na-apụtakwa mgbe a na-arụrịta ụka gbasara eziokwu. Maka nkwekọrịta azụmahịa nkịtị, mbinye aka dị elu site na ikpo okwu a ma ama na-abụkarị nke nha nhata; maka ihe ọ bụla ga-alanarị ihe ịma aka siri ike, jiri ụzọ ruru eru.

Ikike iwu bụ ihe fọdụrụ n'iwu. Onye nnọchite anya nwere ike ịkagbu nkwekọrịta na ụmụaka na ndị toro eto n'okpuru usoro nchekwa, nke na-abụkarị nsogbu na B2B mana mgbe ụfọdụ ọ na-aghọ nke ndị ahịa naanị ha na-azụ ahịa.

How far does freedom of contract go?

Parties may agree what they want, but reasonableness and fairness, the rules on interpretation and mandatory law set the limits.

When can a court set a clause aside?

Nkeji edemede 6:248 nke Iwu Obodo na-enye ezi obi — redelijkheid en billijkheid — ọrụ abụọ. Ọ na-agbakwụnye nkwekọrịta ahụ, na-ejupụta oghere ndị otu ahụ na-anaghị eleba anya. Ọ na-egbochikwa: iwu ga-emetụta n'okpuru nkwekọrịta ahụ anaghị emetụta ma ọ bụrụ na, n'ọnọdụ ndị ahụ, nke ahụ agaghị anabata site na ụkpụrụ ezi uche na ikpe ziri ezi. Oke maka ọrụ mmachi ahụ dị elu nke ọma; "enweghị ikpe ziri ezi" ezughị, ụlọ ikpe Dutch na-achọsi ike ebe a na mmekọrịta B2B n'etiti ndị ọkachamara karịa na ọnọdụ ndị ahịa. Mana nke a bụ ihe kpatara nkebi ahịrịokwu nke na-agụ nke ọma nwere ike ịda ada, ọ bụkwa ihe onye ndụmọdụ mba ọzọ na-agụ nkwekọrịta Dutch na-anaghị atụlekarị.

How does a Dutch court interpret a contract?

Dutch courts do not read a contract purely by the dictionary. Since the Supreme Court’s Haviltex judgment (13 March 1981, ECLI:NL:HR:1981:AG4158) the question is what meaning the parties could reasonably attribute to the wording in the circumstances, and what they could reasonably expect of each other. The negotiation record, the parties’ sophistication and whether they were advised all feed in. Between professional parties advised by lawyers, and particularly where the contract contains an entire-agreement clause, the wording carries more weight; it never carries all of it.

Which rules cannot be contracted out of?

A naghị ekwe ka e nwee ụfọdụ iwu. N'ọrụ azụmaahịa, ihe ndị na-emebi iwu bụ ndokwa ụlọ ọrụ, usoro usoro na ọnọdụ izugbe, iwu asọmpi, na iwu ndị na-echebe ndị na-adịghị ike n'ụdị nkwekọrịta ụfọdụ. Nkebi nke na-emegide iwu mmanye bụ ihe efu n'okwu ahụ.

What happens to the rest of the contract if one clause is void?

Nke ahụ bụ ihe nkebi ahịrịokwu nkewa ahụ bụ maka ya. Na-enweghị otu, nkebi ahịrịokwu 3:41 nke Iwu Obodo na-ekpebi ma iwu nkewa ahụ ọ ga-adọkpụ akụkụ ndị ọzọ nke nkwekọrịta ahụ na ya, site n'ịjụ ma ihe fọdụrụ nwere njikọ na ya nke ọma. Nkebi ahịrịokwu nkewa nke na-ekwukwa ihe kwesịrị ime kama - na ndị otu ahụ ga-eji nke dị irè dochie ndokwa nkewa ahụ na-eru nso mmetụta ya - bara uru nke ukwuu karịa nkewa nkịtị nke na-ekwu naanị na ndị ọzọ dị ndụ.

Which clauses decide the outcome of a commercial contract?

Choice of law and forum, limitation of liability, indemnity, force majeure, confidentiality, non-compete, intellectual property and data protection.

Nkebi ndị dị n'okpuru bụ ndị na-ekpebi ihe ga-esi na ya pụta. E ji okwu Dutch nye nke ọ bụla, n'ihi na ọ bụ nke ahụ ka ndụmọdụ nke akụkụ nke ọzọ ga-eji.

What belongs in the contract, and what in your general terms?

Put what you negotiated in the contract and standard provisions in the general terms, because general terms are subject to their own, stricter regime.

General terms (algemene voorwaarden) have their own regime in articles 6:231 to 6:247 BW. First, a term in general conditions can be annulled if it is unreasonably onerous, which is a lower threshold than the one applying to individually negotiated clauses. Second, the user of the terms has a duty to make them available before or at the time of contracting; failing that, the terms can be annulled for that reason alone, and pointing at a website is not always enough. Third, the protection is not open to everyone: a large counterparty, defined by criteria of size and reporting obligations, cannot invoke it, which is why the regime matters most in contracts with smaller businesses.

E nwekwara agha nke ụdị ndị ahụ . Ebe akụkụ abụọ ahụ na-ezo aka na ọnọdụ nke ha, edemede 6:225 nke Iwu Obodo na-enye ihe mbụ dị mkpa, ọ gwụla ma onye nke abụọ jụrụ nke mbụ nke ọma - nke doro anya, ọ bụghị site na nkebi ahịrịokwu ọkọlọtọ n'ọnọdụ nke ya. Onye ọ bụla chọrọ ka usoro nke ya tinye aka ga-ekwu ya nke ọma, n'ịnakwere ya n'onwe ya.

Iwu bara uru: ihe ọ bụla ndị otu ahụ kparịtara ụka n'ezie bụ nke dị na nkwekọrịta ahụ, ihe ọ bụla ọkọlọtọ dịkwa na ọnọdụ ndị ahụ. Okwu dị mkpa na nkwekọrịta ahụ dị nchebe karịa na nkwekọrịta ahụ, ebe ule siri ike na-adịghị erute ya.

Is an oral agreement binding?

Nkwekọrịta ọnụ dị oke mkpa dịka nke e dere ede, ma e wezụga ebe achọrọ maka akwụkwọ. Nsogbu a abụghị eziokwu kama ọ bụ ihe akaebe, usoro iwu obodo nke Netherlands na-ahapụkwa ibu arọ ahụ ka onye ahụ na-akwado nkwekọrịta ahụ.

In practice that party is rarely without material. A WhatsApp exchange, an email confirming what was discussed, an unpaid but unchallenged invoice, a delivery accepted without protest, a note of a call sent to the other side the same day: individually thin, together often decisive. Witness evidence is admissible and a party may be heard as a witness, though a party’s own statement carries limited weight where they bear the burden of proof.

After an oral agreement, send a short confirmation of what was agreed and ask the other party to confirm. Silence in the face of such a message is not acceptance in law, but a court will notice it, and the message itself becomes evidence of what was discussed and when.

Isi ihe ọzọ na-ebilite n'ihe gbasara mmekọrịta mba ụwa: nkwekọrịta n'asụsụ Bekee n'etiti ndị otu Dutch dị irè, otu a ka nkwekọrịta n'asụsụ Dutch n'etiti ndị otu Dutch na ndị otu mba ọzọ dịkwa. Asụsụ anaghị emetụta izi ezi. Ọ na-emetụta nkọwa, n'ihi na okwu iwu Bekee nwere ihe ọ pụtara site na sistemụ na-adịghị emetụta, a ga-agụkwa okwu dị ka "mgbalị kacha mma" ma ọ bụ "mfu sitere na ya" dịka ụlọ ikpe Dutch si agụ ya, ọ bụghị dịka nke Bekee ga-esi mee.

Can you break off negotiations freely?

In the early stages, yes. Later on, breaking off can make you liable for the other party’s costs and, in exceptional cases, for its lost profit.

Iwu ikpe Dutch na-arụ ọrụ na usoro. N'oge mbụ, otu ọ bụla n'ime ha nwere ike ịkwụsị n'enweghị nsogbu ma buru ụgwọ nke ya. Ka mkparịta ụka na-aga n'ihu, nkewa nwere ike ịghọ nke na onye ahụ na-eme nke a ga-akwụghachi ụgwọ nke onye nke ọzọ. Na nke ikpeazụ, ebe onye nke ọzọ nwere ike iche n'ụzọ ziri ezi na nkwekọrịta ụfọdụ ga-esi na ya pụta, nkewa nwere ike ịbụ ihe a na-anabataghị kpamkpam, na-ekpughe onye ahụ na nkwupụta maka mmebi nke nwere ike ịgbatị ruo uru furu efu, ma ọ bụ nye iwu ka ọ gaa n'ihu na mkparịta ụka.

Oke njedebe dị elu, ma kpachara anya mee ya. Ụlọikpe Kasị Elu ekwuola na ọkọlọtọ maka ịchọpụta na a gaghị ekwe ka a kwụsị nkwekọrịta ahụ siri ike, nakwa na ụlọ ikpe ga-ejide onwe ya: ebe mmalite bụ na otu nwere ike ịkwụsị nkwekọrịta ahụ, ọ bụkwa maka onye ahụ nwere nkụda mmụọ ịchọpụta na ntụkwasị obi ya na nkwekọrịta ahụ ziri ezi, na-eburu n'uche otu mkparịta ụka ahụ si aga na ma akụkụ nke ọzọ ò tinyere aka na ntụkwasị obi ahụ. Ọnọdụ ndị a tụlere gụnyere nkwekọrịta na isi ihe niile dị mkpa, mbipụta ikpeazụ ejikọtara ọnụ, na onye nke ọzọ na-agba onye nke ọzọ ume ka ọ kwụọ ụgwọ.

A short letter of intent that says in terms that no party is bound until a signed contract exists, that each bears its own costs, and that either may withdraw at any time, removes almost the entire risk. Where exclusivity is granted or one party is asked to invest during the talks, the letter should say what happens to those costs if the deal does not close.

Iwu ikpe gbasara nke a, ihe a ga-achọ n'ezie na otu ndoputa si egbochi ajụjụ ahụ ịpụta dị na peeji anyị gbasara ịkwụsị mkparịta ụka n'okpuru iwu Dutch.

What can you do if the other party does not perform?

Send a notice of default first. After that you can claim performance, suspend your own performance, terminate the contract and claim damages.

Why is a notice of default needed?

As a rule, remedies for non-performance require that the debtor is in default (verzuim), na ndabara na-ebilitekarị naanị mgbe e dechara ọkwa ederede nke na-enye oge ezi uche dị na ya maka arụmọrụ: mkpori ndụ, n'okpuru isiokwu 6:82 na 6:83 nke Iwu Obodo. E nwere ihe ndị ọzọ - ebe arụmọrụ aghọọla ihe na-agaghị ekwe omume kpamkpam, ebe oge a kara aka agafeela, ma ọ bụ ebe onye ji ụgwọ mere ka o doo anya na ọ gaghị arụ ọrụ - mana ha bụ ihe ndị ọzọ, ịdabere na ya bụkwa mkpebi a ga-eme n'amaghị ama.

Ọkwa a na-eji eme ihe na-egosi ihe e kwekọrịtara, ihe a na-emebeghị, ihe achọrọ, na mgbe oge ahụ ruru oke iji bụrụ ihe ezi uche dị na ya n'ọnọdụ ndị ahụ. Ziga ya n'ụzọ ga-egosi na e natara ya.

Which remedies are available?

• Ọrụ. Kwuo na nkwekọrịta ahụ ga-emezu, ọ bụrụ na ọ dị mkpa site n'ụlọ ikpe, yana ntaramahụhụ maka emeghị ihe ọ bụla.
• Nkwusioru (opschorting, edemede 6:52 nke Iwu Obodo). Kwụsị ịrụ ọrụ nke gị mgbe onye nke ọzọ na-emebi iwu — nke dị irè, nrụgide ahụ na-edozi okwu ahụ mgbe niile, mana ịkwụsị n'enweghị ihe kpatara ya na-etinye gị n'ime mmebi iwu.
• Nkwụsị (ontbinding, edemede 6:265 nke Iwu Obodo). Ọdịda ọ bụla na-enye ikike ịkwụsị ma ọ gwụla ma ọdịda ahụ, n'ihi obere ihe ọ pụtara, emeghị ka ọ dị mma. Nkwụsị na-eme ka nkwekọrịta ahụ ghara ịdị irè ma na-emepụta ọrụ ịkwụghachi ụgwọ; ọ naghị ewepụ mmebi.
• Mmebi (isiokwu nke 6:74 nke Iwu Obodo). Ụgwọ maka mfu nke mmebi iwu ahụ kpatara, dabere na ntinye na iwu ihe kpatara ya na nke ezi uche dị na ya, yana oke nkwekọrịta ọ bụla.

Can a contract be changed because of unforeseen circumstances?

Where circumstances change so fundamentally that the other party cannot reasonably expect the contract to be maintained unchanged, article 6:258 of the Civil Code allows a court to modify or set aside the contract. This is not a route around a bad bargain: the threshold is high, and circumstances the contract already allocated — which is what a well-drafted force majeure or price-adjustment clause does — are not unforeseen for this purpose.

What changes when the contract crosses a border?

You must decide which law applies, which court or arbitral tribunal decides disputes, who bears the transport and currency risk, and whether the CISG applies.

Which law applies, and where does a choice of law stop?

N'ime EU, Iwu Rom nke Mbụ na-achịkwa iwu metụtara. Ndị otu nwere ike ịhọrọ, a na-akwanyekwara nhọrọ ahụ ùgwù. A na-eleghara oke abụọ anya mgbe niile. Iwu ndị ka njọ nke ogbako ahụ na-emetụta n'agbanyeghị iwu ahọpụtara. Ebe ihe niile dị n'ọnọdụ ahụ dị n'otu mba, nhọrọ nke iwu mba ọzọ enweghị ike iwepụ iwu mba ahụ. Ya mere, ịhọrọ iwu Bekee ma ọ bụ Switzerland maka nkwekọrịta n'etiti ụlọ ọrụ Dutch abụọ na-arụ ọrụ na Netherlands na-enweta ihe dị obere karịa ka o yiri.

Ebe ọ bụ na enweghị nhọrọ, Rom nke Mbụ kenyere iwu ahụ site na ụdị nkwekọrịta - n'ozuzu ya, iwu nke mba nke onye ahụ na-arụ ọrụ njirimara ahụ.

Ụlọikpe ma ọ bụ mkpezi ikpe?

Jurisdiction within the EU follows the Brussels I bis Regulation, which upholds a forum clause. The choice between the state courts and arbitration is a real one. Arbitration offers confidentiality, arbitrators with sector knowledge and, through the New York Convention, enforcement in a very large number of countries, which is its decisive advantage where the counterparty’s assets are outside Europe. Against that it is expensive, there is effectively no appeal, and interim relief may still require a court. Whichever is chosen, the clause has to be unambiguous: seat, language, institution and rules, or the courts of a named place, and not two routes at once.

How do Incoterms allocate risk?

N'ahịa ndị na-agafe ókèala, oge nnyefe na-ekpebi onye nwere ihe egwu njem na onye ga-akwụ ụgwọ, ICC Incoterms bụkwa mkpụmkpụ okwu a na-ejikarị eme ihe. EXW na-etinye ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ihe niile n'aka onye zụrụ ya site na ebe onye na-ere ahịa; FOB na-etinye ihe egwu n'ahụ onye zụrụ ya ozugbo ngwaahịa dị n'ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri aha ya; DDP na-etinye ihe fọrọ nke nta ka ọ bụrụ ihe niile n'ahụ onye na-ere ahịa ruo mgbe ebugachara ya ebe a na-aga. Iwu abụọ nke ojiji: kwuo mgbe niile na ebe aha ya bụ Incoterm na afọ ụdị, ma lelee ma ọ dabara na ihe nkwekọrịta ahụ kwuru gbasara mbufe aha, n'ihi na ha abụọ bụ ajụjụ dị iche iche na enweghị nkwekọ bụ ebe esemokwu na-amalite.

How do you deal with currency and payment risk?

For a long-term contract in a foreign currency, name the currency of payment, say who bears conversion costs, and consider an adjustment mechanism or a hedging obligation for long-term supply. Advance payments, deposits and payment guarantees allocate the credit risk in the same way; a bank guarantee or a letter of credit is worth its cost where the counterparty is unknown or in a jurisdiction where enforcement is slow.

When does the Vienna Sales Convention (CISG) apply?

Maka ire ngwaahịa mba ofesi n'etiti azụmaahịa na mba ndị na-enye nkwekọrịta, CISG na-arụ ọrụ na akpaghị aka ma ọ gwụla ma ewepụrụ ya. Nke a na-eju ndị otu anya mgbe niile: onye na-enye ngwaahịa na Dutch na onye na-azụ ahịa German nke họọrọ iwu Dutch na-enweta CISG, n'ihi na ọ bụ akụkụ nke iwu Dutch maka ire ahịa dị otú ahụ. Ọ bụ usoro a pụrụ ịrụ ọrụ ma n'ụzọ ụfọdụ ọ na-adị mfe ibunye ngwaahịa karịa Iwu Obodo, ọkachasị na ọrụ onye zụrụ ahịa inyocha na ịgwa ya n'ime obere oge. Mkpebi idobe ya ma ọ bụ iwepụ ya kwesịrị ịbụ nke a kpachapụrụ anya mee, ma kwuo ya na nkwekọrịta ahụ n'ụzọ ọ bụla.

Which type of commercial agreement do you need?

Dutch law regulates some contract types in detail in Book 7 BW and leaves others almost entirely to the parties. Below are the seven types Dutch businesses meet most often.

What should a sales and purchase agreement cover?

Conformity, the period for complaints, retention of title, the passing of risk and payment terms.

Ire ahịa ngwa ahịa n'etiti azụmaahịa bụ iwu dị mkpa n'okpuru isiokwu 7:1 nke Iwu Obodo: otu onye na-ekwe nkwa ịnye ihe, nke ọzọ akwụ ụgwọ. Achọghị ụdị ọ bụla, yabụ iwu ịzụrụ ihe na nkwenye iwu zuru oke iji mepụta otu. Usoro nke na-esote abụghị iwu n'ọtụtụ ebe azụmaahịa na azụmaahịa, nke pụtara na nkwekọrịta na usoro izugbe na-ekpebi ọtụtụ ajụjụ na Iwu Obodo na-ejupụta naanị oghere ndị ahụ.

Usoro abụọ nwere ọtụtụ ibu arọ. Nkeji edemede 7:17 nke Iwu Obodo chọrọ ka ngwongwo ndị ahụ kwekọọ na nkwekọrịta ahụ, nke pụtara na ha ga-enwerịrị ihe onwunwe onye zụrụ ahịa nwere ike ịtụ anya ya n'ihi ụdị ngwaahịa na okwu ndị e kwuru gbasara ha. N'okpuru isiokwu 7:23 nke Iwu Obodo onye zụrụ ahịa na-efunahụ ikike mkpesa ma ọ bụrụ na ọ gwaghị onye na-ere ahịa n'ime oge ezi uche dị na ya mgbe ọ chọpụtara, ma ọ bụ mgbe ọ chọpụtara nke ọma, ntụpọ ahụ. Oge ọnwa abụọ a kapịrị ọnụ nke a na-ekwukarị gbasara ire ahịa ndị ahịa nke ihe onwunwe a na-ebugharị ebugharị; n'etiti azụmaahịa, ọkọlọtọ ahụ bụ oge mepere emepe, ogologo oge ọ ga-ewe dabere na ngwaahịa na azụmaahịa ahụ. Ndị na-ebubata ngwaahịa na-ebelata ya mgbe niile n'ozuzu ha, ndị na-azụ ahịa na-enyocha oge na-efunahụ ezigbo nkwupụta na nke a naanị.

Nkebi atọ kwesịrị nlebara anya nke ọma. eigendomsvoorbehoud under article 3:92 of the Civil Code, keeps ownership with the seller until payment and is one of the few protections that survive the buyer’s insolvency; it has to be agreed before delivery, not invoiced afterwards. The passing of risk should be stated expressly, using an Incoterm with the named place and version year, and checked against what the contract says about transfer of title, because those are separate questions. Finally, set out the payment term, the consequences of late payment and whether statutory commercial interest applies, so that a debt collection file does not start with an argument about the rate.

What should you know about service agreements?

A service provider owes care, not a result, unless the contract says otherwise, and the client may in principle terminate at any time. The classification of the relationship is the main risk.

Ebe nkwekọrịta ahụ bụ maka ọrụ kama ibu ọrụ, iwu Dutch na-enye usoro abụọ, ọdịiche dị mkpa. Nkwekọrịta ịrụ ọrụ ndị ọzọ karịa imepụta ọrụ a na-ahụ anya bụ overeenkomst van opdracht n'okpuru isiokwu 7:400 nke Iwu Obodo; nkwekọrịta iwu ma ọ bụ ime ihe a na-ahụ anya maka ọnụahịa bụ anneming van werk n'okpuru isiokwu 7:750 nke Iwu Obodo. Ndụmọdụ, nkwado IT, ahịa na njikwa nwa oge na-ada na nke mbụ; owuwu na nrụpụta ahaziri ahazi na nke abụọ.

Dịka edemede 7:401 nke Iwu Obodo si dị, onye na-enye ọrụ kwesịrị ilekọta onye ọrụ nkwekọrịta dị mma. Nke ahụ bụ ọrụ nke mgbalị, ọ bụghị nke nsonaazụ, ọ gwụla ma nkwekọrịta ahụ kwuru ihe ọzọ, ọ bụ ya mere onye ahịa chọrọ ihe ga-esi na ya pụta ga-eji dee ya. Isiokwu 7:408 nke Iwu Obodo na-ekwe ka onye ahịa kwụsị nkwekọrịta ahụ n'oge ọ bụla, iwu nke na-eju ndị na-enye ọrụ anya bụ ndị chere na e doziri oge a kara aka; n'etiti ndị ọkachamara, enwere ike ịhapụ ya, yabụ a ga-ekwekọrịta n'okwu kacha nta ma ọ bụ ụgwọ kagbuo.

The real exposure in service contracts is the classification of the relationship. If the provider works personally, is paid and works under the authority of the client, the arrangement can qualify as an employment contract under article 7:610 of the Civil Code regardless of what the parties called it, with retroactive wage tax, social security contributions and dismissal protection as the consequence. The Dutch Tax Administration (Belastingdienst) ended its enforcement moratorium on false self-employment on 1 January 2025. A bill introducing a presumption of employment below a set hourly rate is pending in parliament; until it enters into force, the existing case law on the nature of the relationship applies. Keep the scope of work objective, avoid instructions about how and when the work is done, and record substitution rights in writing.

Nkebi abụọ ọzọ na-ekpebi uru nkwekọrịta ahụ. A naghị ebufe ihe onwunwe ọgụgụ isi n'ihi na akwụrụ akwụkwọ ọnụahịa: dịka iwu Dutch si dị, inye ikike nwebisiinka chọrọ akwụkwọ ikike, yabụ nkwekọrịta ọrụ nke na-adịghị ekwu okwu na-ahapụ onye ahịa ya ikike kachasị. Oke ibu ọrụ, oge ọkwa maka nkwupụta na mwepụ nke mfu ndị na-esi na ya pụta bụ ndokwa onye ndụmọdụ ọkachamara ga-esi ọnwụ na ya, yabụ onye ahịa kwesịrị ịnwale ha na oke ihe egwu ahụ kama ịnakwere ha dị ka ọkọlọtọ.

How does a non-disclosure agreement protect you?

It restricts what the recipient may do with your information and shows that you took reasonable steps to keep it secret, which the Trade Secrets Protection Act requires.

Nkwekọrịta nke na-anaghị ekpughe ihe bụ nkwekọrịta nke na-egbochi ihe onye natara ya nwere ike ime na ozi ọ natara. Iwu Dutch anaghị achịkwa NDA dị ka ụdị nkwekọrịta, yabụ ọdịnaya ya bụ okwu ide ihe kpamkpam, mana ọ naghịkwa eguzo naanị ya. Wet bescherming bedrijfsgeheimen, nke na-emejuputa Iwu Nzuzo Azụmaahịa EU, na-enye nchebe onwe onye nye ozi nzuzo, nwere uru azụmahịa n'ihi na ọ bụ ihe nzuzo, a na-emekwa usoro ezi uche dị na ya iji zoo ya. Ihe ikpeazụ a chọrọ bụ ihe mere NDA ji dị mkpa ọbụlagodi mgbe a naghị etinye ya n'ọrụ: na-enweghị ya, usoro iji zoo ozi ahụ siri ike igosipụta, nchekwa iwu na-adaba na ha.

NDA na-arụ ọrụ na-akọwa ozi nzuzo site na otu kama site na ịdepụta akwụkwọ, na-akọwa ebumnuche enyere, na-akpọ aha otu nwere ike ịnweta ozi ahụ, ma na-edobe oge nke na-egosi ogologo oge ozi ahụ ga-anọgide na-aba uru. Binye aka na ya tupu mkpughe mbụ; NDA bịanyere aka na ya mgbe ụlọ data meghere na-echebe ihe ọ bụla ekekọrịtara. Ebe ndị otu ahụ na-enyocha azụmahịa, tinye usoro na-abụghị arịrịọ nke na-ekpuchi ndị ọrụ na ndị ahịa, n'ihi na nke ahụ bụ ihe egwu nke NDA n'onwe ya anaghị ekpuchi.

Ebe a na-adịghị ike bụ ebe a na-anaghị eme nke ọma. Igosi na mfu sitere na mmiri na-esi ike, ọ bụ ya mere ntaramahụhụ nkwekọrịta ji bụrụ ọkọlọtọ. N'okpuru isiokwu 6:91 na ịgbaso Iwu Obodo, usoro ntaramahụhụ na-anọchi mmebi ọ gwụla ma nkwekọrịta ahụ kwuru na ọ bụ mkpokọta, na isiokwu 6:94 nke Iwu Obodo na-enye ụlọ ikpe ohere ibelata ntaramahụhụ ebe arịrịọ ya ga-abụ nke na-ezighị ezi. Dee ntaramahụhụ kwa mmebi na kwa ụbọchị nke ịga n'ihu, debe ego ahụ ka ọ dabara na ihe echekwara mmasị, ma kwuo hoo haa na ikike ịnweta arụmọrụ na mmebi ndị ọzọ dị.

Which rules apply to supply and distribution agreements?

Few statutory rules, but watch out for the mandatory rules on commercial agency and for competition law.

A naghị achịkwa nkwekọrịta nkesa na ọkọnọ dịka ụdị nkwekọrịta dị na Iwu Obodo, nke mere ka ha bụrụ nkwekọrịta n'efu na ndepụta a, na otu nnukwu ihe ewezuga na otu nnukwu ihe mgbochi.

The exception is commercial agency. A distributor buys and resells for its own account and risk; a commercial agent negotiates or concludes contracts in the name of the principal and is paid commission. Agency is governed by articles 7:428 and following of the Civil Code, and much of that regime is mandatory. It sets statutory notice periods that increase with the length of the relationship, and it gives the agent a claim to a customer indemnity on termination where the agent brought in customers from whom the principal continues to benefit, capped at one year’s average remuneration. The label in the contract does not decide whether a relationship is agency.

Iwu asọmpi bụ iwu asọmpi. Nkwekọrịta kwụ ọtọ n'etiti onye na-ebubata ngwaahịa na onye na-ekesa ngwaahịa dị n'okpuru edemede 101 nke Nkwekọrịta gbasara Ọrụ nke EU na mmachibido iwu Dutch yiri ya. Iwu (EU) 2022/720, mwepu ngọngọ kwụ ọtọ nke etinyere kemgbe 1 Juun 2022, na-ewepụ ọtụtụ n'ime ndokwa ndị a ma ọ bụrụhaala na ọ dịghị otu n'ime ha nwere ihe karịrị pasent iri atọ nke ahịa dị mkpa nakwa na nkwekọrịta ahụ enweghị mmachibido iwu siri ike. Idozi ọnụahịa ire ere nke onye na-ekesa ngwaahịa bụ mmachibido iwu dị otú ahụ, dịka ichebe ókèala pụrụ iche kpamkpam site na igbochi ire ere na-enweghị isi na ya. Nkebi nke ụdị ahụ enweghị isi ma nwee ike ịdọta ntaramahụhụ, yabụ a ga-ewulite ikike ire ere na-arụ ọrụ kama ịbụ mmachibido iwu mkpuchi.

E wezụga nke ahụ, ihe ndị na-ekpebi esemokwu bụ ọrụ nzụta kacha nta, oge ọkwa, na ihe na-eme ngwaahịa, akụkụ ndị ọzọ na data ndị ahịa na njedebe. Iwu ikpe Dutch na-ewere mmekọrịta nkesa dịte aka dị ka ihe a ga-akwụsị, mana ọkwa achọrọ nwere ike ịdị ogologo oge karịa okwu nkwekọrịta ebe onye nkesa tinyere ego na ya, yabụ obere oge ọkwa na-enweghị usoro nkwụghachi ụgwọ na-enye obere obi ike karịa ka o yiri ka ọ dị.

How do you structure a partnership, joint venture or shareholder agreement?

Choose the right instrument, divide the rules correctly between the articles of association and the shareholders’ agreement, and draft the exit clauses carefully.

Ebe mmadụ abụọ ma ọ bụ karịa jikọtara akụrụngwa, nkwekọrịta ahụ ga-eme ihe ụdị ndị ọzọ na-anaghị eme: ọ ga-achịkwa mmekọrịta nke ndị otu ahụ nọ n'otu akụkụ ruo mgbe ha na-adịghị. Omume Dutch na-eji ngwa atọ. Nkwekọrịta otu ma ọ bụ nkwekọrịta nkwonkwo na-achịkwa mmekorita na-enweghị ụlọ ọrụ ọhụrụ ma ọ bụ n'akụkụ otu. Mmekọrịta n'ụzọ doro anya, vennootschap onder firma ma ọ bụ maatschap , na-emepụta ibu ọrụ nkwonkwo nke ndị mmekọ maka ụgwọ nke azụmaahịa ahụ, nke bụ otu ihe kachasị mkpa mere ịhọrọ ụlọ ọrụ kama. Nkwekọrịta ndị na-eketa òkè na-achịkwa mmekọrịta dị n'etiti ndị nwe BV yana nkwekọrịta njikọ ya. A kọwara nhọrọ dị n'etiti ha nke ọma na ibe anyị gbasara nkwekọrịta mmekorita.

Nkewa ọrụ n'etiti ihe ndị ahụ na nkwekọrịta nke ndị nwere òkè bụ isi ihe a na-anaghị atụle. Ihe ndị a bụ ihe ọha na eze, ha na-ejikọ onye ọ bụla, tinyere onye ga-eketa òkè n'ọdịnihu, a na-agbanwekwa ha site na akwụkwọ notari. Nkwekọrịta nke ndị nwere òkè bụ nkeonwe, na-ejikọ naanị ndị otu ahụ na ya, mmebi ya na-ewetakwa mkpesa maka mmebi ma ọ bụ ntaramahụhụ kama mkpebi ụlọ ọrụ na-abaghị uru. Ya mere, ihe ọ bụla nke ga-arụ ọrụ megide onye nke atọ nke nwetara òkè bụ nke dị na isiokwu ndị ahụ: mmachi mbufe, klaasị òkè, ikike ntuli aka pụrụ iche ma ọ bụ nhọpụta. Ihe ọ bụla azụmaahịa, site na atụmatụ azụmaahịa ruo na amụma nkewa, dị na nkwekọrịta ahụ. Rịba ama na nnyefe òkè na BV chọrọ akwụkwọ notari n'okpuru isiokwu 2:196 nke Iwu Obodo, yabụ nnyefe òkè na nkwekọrịta nkeonwe ka chọrọ ka notari ahụ malite ịrụ ọrụ.

The clauses that matter are the exit clauses, because the value of a minority stake in a private company depends entirely on them. Set out drag-along and tag-along rights, a valuation method with a named independent valuer, good leaver and bad leaver definitions, and a deadlock mechanism that actually ends the deadlock rather than referring the parties to further consultation. Where the relationship breaks down anyway, Dutch corporate law provides the statutory buy-out and withdrawal proceedings and the inquiry procedure before the Enterprise Chamber (Ondernemingskamer). Our ntuziaka iwu ụlọ ọrụ kọwaa otu usoro ndị ahụ si aga.

Kedu ihe Iwu Nchịkwa Ụtụ Dutch chọrọ?

Precontractual information, a standstill period of at least four weeks and ongoing consultation, under mandatory rules that protect the franchisee.

Nkwekọrịta azụmaahịa bụ otu ụdị nkwekọrịta dị na ndepụta a nke iwu Dutch na-achịkwa kpọmkwem ma na-akwado onye nwe ikike azụmaahịa. Nkwekọrịta azụmaahịa Wet, nke dị irè kemgbe 1 Jenụwarị 2021 ma dabara na nkwekọrịta ndị e mechara tupu ụbọchị ahụ kemgbe 1 Jenụwarị 2023, dị na isiokwu 7:911 ruo 7:922 nke Iwu Obodo. Iwu ya dị mkpa: ndị otu ahụ enweghị ike ịme nkwekọrịta na ha iji mebie onye nwe ikike azụmaahịa nke e guzobere na Netherlands.

Ọrụ atọ na-akọwa usoro ahụ. Nke mbụ, ọrụ ozi tupu nkwekọrịta dịka edemede 7:913 nke Iwu Obodo si dị: onye na-enye ikike ga-enye nkwekọrịta edemede, ozi ego onye na-achọ ọrụ kwesịrị ịtụle usoro ahụ, nkọwa nke ụgwọ na usoro ọ bụla e si nweta, na ozi gbasara otu esi hazie mkparịta ụka n'etiti ndị otu ahụ. Nke abụọ, oge nkwụsịtụ nke opekata mpe izu anọ dịka edemede 7:914 nke Iwu Obodo si dị, nke onye na-enye ikike agaghị agbanwe nkwekọrịta ahụ ka ọ ghara imebi onye na-achọ ọrụ, enweghị ike imechi nkwekọrịta ahụ, ọ nweghịkwa ike ịmanye onye na-achọ ọrụ ịkwụ ụgwọ ma ọ bụ itinye ego. Nke atọ, ọrụ na-aga n'ihu nke ozi na ndụmọdụ n'oge mmekọrịta ahụ, gụnyere ndụmọdụ kwa afọ na ọkwa oge maka mgbanwe na usoro nke chọrọ itinye ego.

Nkwekọrịta ahụ n'onwe ya ga-akọwa etu esi ekpebi ihe ọma na otu esi akwụghachi ya ụgwọ mgbe onye na-enye ikike inweta ikike ga-eweghara azụmaahịa ahụ, na okwu ọ bụla na-abụghị nke asọmpi mgbe nkwekọrịta gasịrị ga-adịrịrị n'akwụkwọ, nke a ga-ejedebe naanị na ngwaahịa ma ọ bụ ọrụ nke usoro ahụ kpuchiri, nke a na-egbochi naanị mpaghara ebe onye na-enye ikike inweta ikike na-arụ ọrụ, na ihe karịrị otu afọ. Mgbanwe na usoro gafere oke ekwenyere, na iwebata usoro ewepụtara, chọrọ nkwenye nke onye na-enye ikike inweta ikike ma ọ bụ nke ọtụtụ ndị na-enye ikike inweta ikike. Ikikere akara ahụ naanị, na-enweghị usoro ọrụ na ọrụ ndị so ya, bụ nkwekọrịta dị iche; a kọwara ọdịiche dị na isiokwu anyị gbasara nkwekọrịta ikike , na usoro ikike dịka ọ na-arụ ọrụ n'omume na ntuziaka anyị maka ikike inweta ikike na Netherlands.

Which rules apply to a commercial lease?

That depends on the use of the premises: retail space falls under Article 7:290 BW with strong protection, other business space under Article 7:230a BW with much less.

Iwu mgbazinye ụlọ nke Dutch kewara ụlọ azụmaahịa ụzọ abụọ, nke a na-ekpebikwa site n'iji ihe onwunwe ahụ eme ihe kama site n'ihe a na-akpọ mgbazinye ụlọ. Isiokwu 7:290 nke Iwu Obodo na-ekpuchi oghere azụmaahịa n'ụzọ sara mbara: ụlọ ahịa, ụlọ oriri na ọṅụṅụ na kafe, ebe a na-eri nri, ụlọ nkwari akụ na azụmaahịa aka ọrụ nwere counter mepere emepe nye ọha. Ihe ọ bụla ọzọ na-abụghị ebe obibi, gụnyere ọfịs, ụlọ nyocha, ebe a na-arụ ọrụ na ọtụtụ ebe a na-echekwa ihe, dabara n'okpuru isiokwu 7:230a nke Iwu Obodo.

Ọdịiche dị na nchekwa dị oke mkpa. Onye bi n'ụlọ nke nwere oghere 290 na-enweta usoro oge iwu kwadoro nke afọ ise gbakwunyere ise, ọkwa site na akwụkwọ onye ọka iwu ma ọ bụ akwụkwọ edenyere aha ya na oge ọkwa iwu, na onye nwe ụlọ ga-akwụsị naanị n'ihi na e depụtara Iwu Obodo, nke mkpa ngwa ngwa nke onye nwe ụlọ nwere maka ojiji bụ isi; ụlọ ikpe nwekwara ike inye oge amara. Onye bi n'ụlọ nke nwere oghere 230a enweghị nchebe oge ma ọlị, naanị nchebe mwepụ: mgbe nkwekọrịta mgbazinye ahụ gwụchara, onye bi n'ụlọ nwere ike ịrịọ ụlọ ikpe maka mgbatị oge nke oge ezumike, nke enwere ike inye ruo otu afọ n'otu oge na afọ atọ n'ozuzu ya. Ọpụpụ site na ọchịchị 290 ruo na mmebi nke onye bi n'ụlọ chọrọ nkwenye nke ụlọ ikpe. Anyị na-atụnyere usoro abụọ ahụ nke ọma n'isiokwu anyị gbasara ebe azụmaahịa 290 megide 230a.

Ọtụtụ nkwekọrịta azụmaahịa Dutch na-eji ụdị ROZ, nke e dere site n'echiche onye nwe ụlọ, mkparịta ụka ahụ na-emekwa na ndokwa pụrụ iche kama na ụdị ahụ n'onwe ya. Isi ihe ndị na-akwụghachi ụgwọ bụ usoro nhazi, nkewa dị n'etiti mmezi maka akaụntụ onye nwe ụlọ na onye nwe ụlọ, ịkwụ ụgwọ ọrụ na ihe akaebe ya, ojiji enyere ikike na ma enwere ike ịgbanwe ya, nchekwa dị n'ụdị nkwa ụlọ akụ ma ọ bụ nkwụnye ego na mgbe ewepụtara ya, na ọnọdụ na ihe ndozi na njedebe nke nkwekọrịta ahụ. A ga-akparịta ụka nhọrọ ezumike na ikike ịnyefe ma ọ bụ nyefe; ụdị ahụ enyeghị ha.

Gịnị ka ị kwesịrị ịlele dịka onye na-ebubata ngwaahịa?

As a supplier, you want your own terms to apply and your liability to be capped. Under article 6:225 BW, the first set of general terms applies unless the other party expressly rejects it.

• Your general terms were provided before or when the contract was concluded (article 6:234 BW).
• The liability cap and the exclusion of consequential loss fit the value of the contract and your insurance.
• Retention of title (article 3:92 BW) was agreed before delivery.
• Payment terms, late-payment interest and the Incoterm with named place and version year are stated.
• For a sale abroad, you have decided whether to keep or exclude the CISG.
• A relationship described as distribution is not, in substance, commercial agency under articles 7:428 and following BW.

Gịnị ka ị kwesịrị ịlele dịka onye ahịa?

As a customer, you need remedies that work when the supplier fails. That starts with a notice of default under article 6:82 BW and a contract that does not empty your claims in advance.

• The signatory has authority according to the Chamber of Commerce (KvK) extract or a written power of attorney.
• The contract states the result or service level you need, not only a duty of care (article 7:401 BW).
• The period for complaints about defects is workable for your inspection process (article 7:23 BW).
• Intellectual property in work made for you is assigned by deed, not just paid for.
• A processing agreement under Article 28 GDPR is in place if the supplier handles personal data for you.
• Termination, notice periods and what happens to data, stock and customers at the end are agreed.

What can we do for you with commercial agreements?

Anyị ụlọ ọrụ ndị ọka iwu draft, review and negotiate commercial contracts under Dutch law, and act when a contract has to be enforced or defended.

• We review your draft contract and general terms and mark the clauses on liability, indemnity, force majeure and exit.
• We check which statutory regime applies, such as agency, franchise, employment or the 290 lease regime.
• We draft letters of intent, NDAs, distribution, franchise and shareholders’ agreements.
• We draft and send the notice of default (ingebrekestelling) and assess suspension, termination and damages.
• We conduct proceedings before the Dutch courts or in arbitration if a dispute cannot be settled.

Summary

• A commercial contract is formed by offer and acceptance (Article 6:217 BW); no writing or signature is required, except for specific transactions such as a transfer of shares or real estate.
• Reasonableness and fairness, the rules on interpretation and mandatory law can set aside even a clearly worded clause.
• Before you terminate or claim damages, the other party must usually be in default after a written notice.
• In international contracts, check the choice of law, the forum, the Incoterm and whether the CISG applies.
• Agency, franchise and commercial leases come with mandatory rules; the label in the contract does not decide which regime applies.

Ọtụtụ mgbe Ẹbụp Ajụjụ